[5] Koselleck, “Historical Criteria of the Modern Concept of Revolution,” trans.Tribe, 47, 48, 49。revolution和civil war两个概念的连续性，参见Koselleck,Critique and Crisis, 160 – 61; Bulst et al., “Revolution, Rebellion, Aufruhr,Bürgerkrieg,” esp. 712 –14, 726 –27, 778 – 80。
[6] Momigliano, “Ancient History and the Antiquarian,” 294; Goulemot, Le règne de l’histoire, 127–56.
[7] Echard, The Roman History from the Building of the City to the Perfect Settlement of the Empire by Augustus Cæsar.
[8] Vertot, Histoire de la conjuration de Portugal; Vertot, Histoire des révolutions de Suède où l’on voit les changemens qui sont arrivez; Vertot, Histoire des révolutions de Portugal.
[9] Trakulhun, “Das Ende der Ming-Dynastie in China (1644).”
[10] Sidney, Discourses Concerning Government, 195 – 96.
[11] Vattel, Law of Nations (1758), 3.18.293, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 645.
[12] “A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress Assembled” ( July 4, 1776), in Armitage, Declaration of Independence, 165.
[13] Vattel, Law of Nations 1.4.51, 3.1.1–2, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 105, 469.
[14] Ibid., 3.18.287, 290, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 641, 642.
[15] “Thomas Jefferson’s ‘Original Rough Draft’ of the Declaration of Independence,” in Armitage, Declaration of Independence, 161.
[16] Vattel, Law of Nations 3.18.292, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 644 – 45. On Vattel’s doctrine of civil war, see Rech, Enemies of Mankind, 209 –13, 216 –20.
[17] Vattel, Law of Nations 3.18.293, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 645.
[18] Ibid., 3.18.295, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 648 – 49.
[19] Zurbuchen, “Vattel’s ‘Law of Nations’ and the Principle of Non-intervention”;Pitts, “Intervention and Sovereign Equality.”
[20] Vattel, Law of Nations 2.4.56, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 290 – 91.
[21] Braund, “Bernard Romans.”
[22] Romans, To the Hone. Jno. Hancock Esqre.; Romans, Philadelphia, July 12.1775.
[23] Romans, Annals of the Troubles in the Netherlands.
[24] Belcher, First American Civil War, is the exception that proves the rule.
[25] Paine, Common Sense, in Collected Writings, 25.
[26] O’Shaughnessy, Empire Divided; more generally, see Armitage, “First Atlantic Crisis.”
[27] Lawson, “Anatomy of a Civil War”; Shy, People Numerous and Armed,183– 92; Wahrman, Making of the Modern Self, 223 –37, 239– 44; Simms, Three Victories and a Defeat, 593–600; Klooster, Revolutions in the Atlantic World,11– 44; Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 21–53.
[28] Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 352.
[29] Bollan, The Freedom of Speech and Writing upon Public Affairs, Considered;with an Historical View of the Roman Imperial Laws Against Libels, 158 –59.关于Bollan对罗马史的运用，参见York, “Defining and Defending Colonial American Rights,” 213。
[30] Price, Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, 91.
[31] Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations 4.7.c, ed.Campbell and Skinner, 2:622.
[32] Pocock, “Political Thought in the English-Speaking Atlantic, 1760—1790,”256 –57.
[33] Newport Mercury, April 24, 1775, quoted in Breen, American Insurgents,American Patriots, 281– 82.
[34] Civil War; a Poem; Hartley, Substance of a Speech in Parliament, upon the State of the Nation and the Present Civil War with America, 19; Roebuck, Enquiry,Whether the Guilt of the Present Civil War in America, Ought to Be Imputed to Great Britain or America.
[35] [Jackson], Emma Corbett; Wahrman, Making of the Modern Self, 243 – 44.
[36] Cooper, introduction (1831) to Spy, 13; Larkin, “What Is a Loyalist?”
[37] Pocock, Three British Revolutions, 1641, 1688, 1776.
[38] “A Declaration…Seting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms”( July 6, 1775), in Hutson, Decent Respect to the Opinions of Mankind, 96, 97(my emphasis).
[39] Lord North to George III, July 26, 1775, quoted in Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 338.
[40] Paine, Common Sense, in Collected Writings, 45 – 46.
[41] Ibid., 18 –19. Compare Howell, Twelve Several Treatises, of the Late Revolutions in These Three Kingdomes, 118, where the total of “rebellions” since 1066 is given as “near upon a hundred.”
[42] On Paine and the “republican turn” in 1776, see Nelson, Royalist Revolution,108–45.
[43] “Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress Assembled” ( July 4, 1776), in Armitage, Declaration of Independence, 165, 170.
[44] Beaulac, “Emer de Vattel and the Externalization of Sovereignty.”
[45] Franklin to C. G. F. Dumas, Dec. 9, 1775, in Papers of Benjamin Franklin,22:287.
[46] Armitage, Declaration of Independence, 165, 166.
[47] Lempérière, “Revolución, guerra civil, guerra de independencia en el mundo hispánico, 1808—1825”; Adelman, “Age of Imperial Revolutions”; Pani, “Ties Unbound”; Lucena Giraldo, Naciones de rebeldes; Pérez Vejo, Elegía criolla.
[48] José María Cos, “Plan de Guerra” ( June 10, 1812), in Guedea, Textos insurgentes (1808—1821), 52–55; San Martín to Tomás Godoy Cruz, April 12,1816, quoted in John Lynch, San Martín, trans. Chaparro, 131.
[49] Baker, “Revolution 1.0,” 189; Baker, “Inventing the French Revolution,” 203,223.
[50] Snow, “Concept of Revolution in Seventeenth-Century England”; Rachum,“Meaning of ‘Revolution’ in the English Revolution (London, 1648—1660).” For an alternative view, see Harris, “Did the English Have a Script for Revolution in the Seventeenth Century?”
[51] hobbes, Behemoth; or, The Long Parliament, 389.
[52] Edelstein, “Do We Want a Revolution Without Revolution?”; compare Rey,“Révolution”; William H. Sewell Jr., “Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille,” in Logics of History, 225 –70.
[53] Vlassopoulos, “Acquiring (a) Historicity,” 166.
[54] Furet, “The Revolutionary Catechism,” in Interpreting the French Revolution,trans. Forster, 83.
[55] Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1851), in Selected Writings,300.
[56] Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France,26 –27 (quoting Livy, Histories 9.1.10) (my emphasis).
[57] Burke, Letter from the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, 41.
[58] Vattel, Law of Nations 3.3.36, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 488. The fuller quotation reads, “Justum est bellum, quibus necessaria; et pia arma, quibus nulla nisi in armis relinquitur spes.”
[59] Burke, “Speech on the Seizure and Confiscation of Private Property in St.Eustatius” (May 14, 1781), in Parliamentary History of England from the Earliest Period to 1803, vol. 22, col. 231.
[60] Burke, Thoughts on French Affairs, in Further Reflections on the Revolution in France, 207.
[61] Vattel, Law of Nations 2.4.56, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 291; compare ibid.,3.16.253, ed. Kapossy and Whatmore, 627.
[62] Kant, “Toward Perpetual Peace,” in Practical Philosophy, trans. Gregor,319 –20; Hurrell, “Revisiting Kant and Intervention,” 198.
[63] Burke, “First Letter on a Regicide Peace” (Oct. 20, 1796), and Burke, “Second Letter on a Regicide Peace” (1796), in Revolutionary War, 1794—1797, 187,267; Armitage, Foundations of Modern International Thought, 163 – 69.
[64] 参见，例如Martin, “Rivoluzione francese e guerra civile”; Martin, “La guerre civile”; Andress, Terror; Martin, La Vendée et la Révolution。
[65] Mayer, Furies, 4 – 5.
[66] Serna, “Toute révolution est guerre d’indépendance.”
[67] Drayton, Charge, on the Rise of the American Empire, 2, 8, 15.
[68] Guizot, Histoire de la révolution d’Angleterre, depuis l’avènement de Charles Ier jusqu’a la restauration, 1:xvii: “Telle est enfin l’analogie des deux révolutions que la première n’eût jamais été bien comprise si la seconde n’eût éclaté.”
[69] Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto (1848), in Marx, Selected Writings, 230 (“den mehr oder minder versteckten Bürgerkrieg innerhalb der bestehenden Gesellschaft bis zu dem Punkt, wo er in eine offene Revolution ausbricht”);Balibar, “On the Aporias of Marxian Politics.”
[70] Marx, The Civil War in France, in Marx and Engels, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels Gesamtausgabe (MEGA), 22:158 (“und der bei Seite fleigt, sobald der Klassenkampf Bürgerkrieg auflodert”).
[71] Lenin, Clausewitz’ Werk “Vom Kriege”; Hahlweg, “Lenin und Clausewitz.”
[72] 这是Carl Schmitt的叙述。Schmitt, Theory of the Partisan, trans. Ulmen, 93.
[73] Lenin [and Grigorii Zinoviev], The Military Programme of the Proletarian Revolution (Sept. 1916), in Collected Works, 23:78. 关于列宁和季诺维也夫的小册子的语境，参见Nation, War on War, 80 – 83。
[74] Stalin (1928), quoted in Rieber, “Civil Wars in the Soviet Union,” 140.
[75] Compare Eckstein, “On the Etiology of Internal Wars,” 133; Canal, “Guerra civil y contrarrevolución en la Europa del sur en el siglo XIX,” 46.
<h4>第五章 内战文明化 19世纪</h4>
[1] Lincoln, “Address Delivered at the Dedication of the Cemetery at Gettysburg”(Nov. 19, 1863), in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 7:23.
[2] 详情参见Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg; Boritt, Gettysburg Gospel; and Johnson,Writing the Gettysburg Address, none of which treats the phrase “great civil war”。
[3] Cimbala and Miller, Great Task Remaining Before Us; Varon, Appomattox;Downs, After Appomattox.
[4] Mably, Des droits et des devoirs du citoyen (1758), 62 – 63 (“la guerre civile est quelque foix un grand bien”).
[5] “La guerra civil es un don de cielo,” quoted in Fuentes, “Guerra civil,” 609;Fuentes, “Belle époque,” 84 – 93.
[6] Chateaubriand, Mémoires d’outretombe, 1358; Caron, Frères de sang, 153 – 57.
[7] Compare Ranzato, “Evidence et invisibilité des guerres civiles”; Grangé, De la guerre civile; Grangé, Oublier la guerre civile?.社会理论中关于战争的研究，参见Joas and Köbl, War in Social Thought, 2。
[8] Rousseau, Social Contract, in Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings 1.4.9, ed. Gourevitch, 46 – 47. 卢梭的观点一定程度上是反驳胡果·格劳秀斯“private” war这个概念的，详见本书第三章。
[9] Clausewitz, On War. 在克劳塞维茨没有那么知名的著作“small war” (kleiner Krieg)中也简短提到了内战，参见Clausewitz, Clausewitz on Small War,trans. Daase and Davis, 121, 131, 163。
[10] Mao and Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare.
[11] “Vouloir donner des maximes pour ces sortes de guerres serait absurde”:Jomini, Précis de l’art de la guerre, 1:85. 关于最近将内战置于规范理论中来叙述的尝试，更多参见Franco Restrepo, Guerras civiles; Fabre, Cosmopolitan War, 130 – 65。
[12] Moynier, Étude sur la Convention de Genève pour l’amélioration du sort des militaires blessés dans les armées en campagne (1864 et 1868), 304 (“Nous neparlons pas, cela va sans dire, des guerres civiles; les lois internationales ne leur sont pas applicables.”)
[13] In volumes 4 – 8 of Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, covering the period 1861 – 65, “rebellion” appears 340 times, “civil war” 64 times. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/.
[14] Gastineau, Histoire de la souscription populaire a la médaille Lincoln; Boritt,Neely, and Holzer, “European Image of Abraham Lincoln,” 161; Doyle, Cause of All Nations, 295 – 97.
[15] hugo, Les Misérables (The Wretched): A Novel; Providence Evening Bulletin,May 25, 1885, quoted in Lebreton-Savigny, Victor Hugo et les Américains(1825—1885), 31 (translation corrected). 法语的Les Misérables于1862年3月底在布鲁塞尔上市，而巴黎是4月底上市的。
[16] hugo, Les Misérables: A Novel, trans. Wilbour, 4:164 – 65.
[17] Laurent, “ ‘La guerre civile?’ ”; Caron, Frères de sang, 157 – 62.
[18] Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 242 – 73.
[19] Geyer and Bright, “Global Violence and Nationalizing Wars in Eurasia and America”; Bayly, Birth of the Modern World, 1780—1914, 148 – 65; Platt,Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom.
[20] Armitage et al., “Interchange.”
[21] Pavkovi , Creating New States, 65 – 94.
[22] Wimmer and Min, “From Empire to Nation-State,” 881 (quoted); Wimmer,Cederman, and Min, “Ethnic Politics and Armed Conflict”; Wimmer, Waves of War.
[23] “Meeting of the Sub-committee [of the Société Publique for the Relief of Wounded Combatants], held on March 17, 1863,” in International Committee of the Red Cross, “The Foundation of the Red Cross”: 67.
[24] Boissier, Histoire du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, 391 – 94; Siordet,“The Geneva Conventions and Civil War”; Sivakumaran, The Law of Noninternational Armed Conflict,31 – 37. (此段中受益颇多。)
[25] Mill, “A Few Words on Non-intervention,” in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, 21:120, 118, 121; Varouxakis, Liberty Abroad, 77 – 89.
[26] Mill, “The Contest in America” (1862), in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill,21:140, 142, 138; Varouxakis, “‘Negrophilist’ Crusader.”
[27] Pitts, “Intervention and Sovereign Equality.”
[28] “Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union” (Dec. 20, 1860), in Journal of the Convention of the People of South Carolina, Held in 1860, 1861 and 1862,461 – 66 (my emphasis).
[29] Lincoln, “Message to Congress in Special Session” ( July 4, 1861), in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 4:426, 435, 436 (Lincoln’s emphases).
[30] Ibid., 4:433.
[31] Lincoln, “First Inaugural Address” (March 4, 1861), in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 4:265.林肯最初使用treasonable而不是revolutionary。Ibid., 4:265n16.
[32] Pavkovic , Creating New States, 221 – 40.
[33] Lincoln, “Address Delivered at the Dedication of the Cemetery at Gettysburg,”in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 7:23.
[34] Wright, “American Civil War (1861—65),” 43.
[35] Neff, Justice in Blue and Gray, 32 – 34.
[36] The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. 635 (1863); Mc Ginty, Lincoln and the Court, 118 – 43;Lee and Ramsey, “Story of the Prize Cases”; Neff, Justice in Blue and Gray,20 – 29.
[37] The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. 635 (1863), citing Vattel, Law of Nations 3.18.293, ed.Kapossy and Whatmore, 645.
[38] halleck, International Law, 73 – 75.
[39] 哈勒克还从约米尼那里衍生出wars of Islamism这个类别。哈勒克后来翻译了约米尼的Life of Napoleon。
[40] halleck, International Law, 332 – 33.
[41] Carroll, War Powers of the General Government, 7–8, citing Vattel, Law of Nations 3.18.293.
[42] Dyer, “Francis Lieber and the American Civil War”; Mack and Lesesne,Francis Lieber and the Culture of the Mind.
[43] Baxter, “First Modern Codification of the Law of War”; Hartigan, Military Rules, Regulations, and the Code of War; Witt, Lincoln’s Code; Finkelman,“Francis Lieber and the Modern Law of War.”
[44] Lieber to George Stillman Hillard, May 11, 1861, Lieber MSS, Henry E.Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif. (hereafter HEH), LI 2308.
[45] Lieber, “[Notes on the] English and Ferench [sic] Revolutions” (ca. 1850),Lieber MSS, HEH LI 365.
[46] Lieber, “Some Questions Answered–Secession–the Strength of Armies and Navys, &ca.” (ca. 1851), Lieber MSS, HEH LI 369.
[47] Lieber, “[Remarks Regarding the Right of Secession]” (ca. 1851), Lieber MSS,HEH LI 368.
[48] Lieber, “Twenty-Seven Definitions and Elementary Positions Concerning the Laws and Usages of War” (1861) and “Laws and Usages of War” (Oct.1861—Feb. 1862), Lieber MSS, Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University,box 2, items 15, 16 – 18.
[49] Lieber, “Laws and Usages of War,” Lieber MSS, John Hopkins University, box 2,item 17. contentio justa出自Alberico Gentili (1552—1608), 转引自Kennedy,Influence of Christianity on International Law,91。
[50] Lieber, “Civil War,” Lieber MSS, John Hopkins University, box 2, item 18;Lieber, Guerrilla Parties, 21; Witt, Lincoln’s Code, 193 – 96.
[51] halleck to Lieber, Aug. 6, 1862; Lieber to Halleck, Aug. 9, 1862, Lieber MSS,HEH, LI 1646, 1758.
[52] Lieber to Bates, Nov. 9, 1862, Lieber MSS, HEH, LI 852.
[53] halleck, annotation to Lieber, Code for the Government of Armies in the Field,25 – [26], HEH, 243077.
[54] Lieber to Halleck, March 4, 1863, Lieber MSS, HEH 1778; compare Lieber,[U.S. Field Order 100.] Section X.
[55] Lieber, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, 34.
[56] Neff, War and the Law of Nations, 256 – 57.
[57] U.S. Constitution, article I, secs. 8 – 9; Fourteenth Amendment (1868), sec. 3.
[58] 也可参见U.S. Naval War Records Office,Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the war of the Rebellion。
[59] Witt, Lincoln’s Code, 340 – 45.
[60] U.S. Department of War, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field.
[61] Ramsey, Masterpiece of Counterguerrilla Warfare, 119 – 41.
[62] 比如Davis, Military Laws of the United States, 798; U.S. Department of War,Rules of Land Warfare; U.S. Department of War, Basic Field Manual; U.S.Department of the Army, Law of Land Warfare, 9。更多详情参见Kretchik, U.S.Army Doctrine。
[63] Compare Fleche, Revolution of 1861.
[64] Coulter, “Name for the American War of 1861—1865,” 123, quoting Mildred Rutherford; Hoar, South’s Last Boys in Gray, 524 – 25 (estimating 120 names for the war); Musick, “War by Any Other Name”; Coski, “War Between the Names”; Manning and Rothman, “Name of War.”
[65] Thomas M. Patterson, Congressional Record (Jan. 11, 1907), 944, in Record Group 94 (Office of the Adjutant General), Administrative Precedent File (“Frech File”), box 16, bundle 58, “Civil War,” National Archives, Washington, D.C.
[66] Congressional Record (Jan. 11, 1907), 944 – 49; clipping from unnamed Washington, D.C., newspaper, Jan. 12, 1907, “Frech File,” National Archives,Washington, D.C.
[67] Coulter, “Name for the American War of 1861—1865,” 128 – 29; United Daughters of the Confederacy, Minutes of the Twenty-First Annual Convention of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, 298.
[68] Blight, Race and Reunion, 15, 300 – 337.
[69] Melville, “The Surrender at Appomattox (April, 1865),” in Published Poems,100; Thomas, “‘My Brother Got Killed in the War,’ ” 301 – 3.
[70] Lucan, Bellum civile 1.128, in Lucan, Civil War, trans. Braund, 6; Jacob,Testament to Union, 169; Malamud, “Auctoritas of Antiquity,” 310 – 11.
[71] Engels to Marx, May 23, 1862, in Marx and Engels, Collected Works, trans.Dixon et al., 41:367.
<h4>第六章 内战的世界 20世纪</h4>
[1] Torres Bodet, “Why We Fight.”感谢Glenda Sluga为我提供这个参考。
[2] Neumann, “International Civil War,” 333, 350; Kunze, “Zweiter Dreißigjähriger Krieg.”
[3] Voltaire, Le siècle de Louis XIV (1756), quoted in Pagden, “Europe:Conceptualizing a Continent,” in The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union, ed. Pagden, 37.
[4] Fénelon, Fables and Dialogues of the Dead, 183; Bell, First Total War, 59.
[5] Lucan, Bellum civile 1.1 – 2: “bella per Emathios plus quam civilian campos, /…canimus” (my emphases).
[6] Armitage, “Cosmopolitanism and Civil War.”
[7] Kant, “Toward Perpetual Peace,” in Practical Philosophy, trans. Gregor, 330.
[8] Rousseau, Project for Perpetual Peace, 9 (“presque la cruauté des guerres civiles”).
[9] Bourrienne, Mémoires de M. de Bourrienne, ministre d’état, 5:207: “La Turquieexceptée, l’Europe n’est qu’une province du monde; quand nous battons, nous ne faisons que de la guerre civile.”
[10] Martin, La Russie et l’Europe, 106: “Toutes les guerres entre Européens sont guerres civiles.”
[11] 参见，例如G. K. Chesterton, in Hymans, Fort, and Rastoul, Pax mundi;Coudenhove-Kalergi, Europe Must Unite, title page。
[12] Diplomatic Conference for the Establishment of International Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War, Final Record of the Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949, 2B:325, 11; Sivakumaran, Law of Non-international Armed Conflict,30 – 31, 40.
[13] International Committee of the Red Cross, Seventeenth International Red Cross Conference, Stockholm, August 1948: Report, 71; Pictet, Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 39 – 48. On the drafting of Common Article 3, see Moir, Law of Internal Armed Conflict,23 – 29.
[14] 20世纪法律背景，详见Rougier, Les guerres civiles et le droit des gens; Siotis,Le droit de la guerre et les conflits armés d’un caractère non-international;Castrén, Civil War; La Haye, War Crimes in Internal Armed Conflicts; Solis,Law of Armed Conflict; Dinstein, Non-international Armed Conflicts in International Law; Moir, “Concept of Non-international Armed Conflict”。
[15] Geneva Convention, Common Article 3, in Pictet, Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 37 – 38.
[16] Sivakumaran, Law of Non-international Armed Conflict, 163; Diplomatic Conference for the Establishment of International Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War, Final Record of the Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949, 1:351, quoted in ibid., 163.日内瓦会议关于殖民地的修改决议，参见Klose, “Colonial Testing Ground,” 108 – 11; Klose, Human Rights in the Shadow of Colonial Violence, trans. Geyer, 122 – 24。
[17] Institut de Droit International, “Principle of Non-intervention in Civil Wars.”
[18] Moir, Law of Internal Armed Conflict, 89 – 132; Sivakumaran, Law of Noninternational Armed Conflict,49 – 92, 182 – 92.
[19] Cullen, Concept of Non-international Armed Conflict in International Humanitarian Law; Vité, “Typology of Armed Conflicts in International Humanitarian Law,” 75 – 83; David, “Internal (Non-international) Armed Conflict.”
[20] 冲突分类的叙述，详见Wilmshurst, International Law and the Classification of Conflict。
[21] Institut de Droit International, “Application of International Humanitarian Law and Fundamental Human Rights, in Armed Conflicts in Which Non-state Entities Are Parties.”
[22] Kolb, “Le droit international public et le concept de guerre civile depuis 1945”;Mattler, “Distinction Between Civil Wars and International Wars and Its Legal Implications.”
[23] International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Tadi ,§ 97.
[24] 这些努力的总结和评论，详见Kre and Mégret, “The Regulation of Noninternational Armed Conflicts”。
[25] U.K. Ministry of Defence, Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict,381 – 408.
[26] Sewall, introduction to U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual, 352.
[27] International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Prosecutor v. Tadi ,§§ 126, 119.
[28] U.S. Department of State, Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs, “Daily Press Briefing — December 2, 2011”; Pressman, “Why Deny Syria Is in a Civil War?”
[29] Chenoweth, “Syrian Conflict Is Already a Civil War”; Murphy, “Why It’s Time to Call Syria a Civil War.”
[30] “Syria Crisis: Death Toll Tops 17,000, Says Opposition Group,” Huffington Post, July 9, 2012; “Syria in Civil War, Red Cross Says,” BBC News, Middle East, July 15, 2012.
[31] International Committee of the Red Cross, “Internal Conflicts or Other Situations of Violence.”
[32] Eckstein, “Introduction: Toward the Theoretical Study of Internal War,”in Internal War, 1. On Eckstein, see Almond, “Harry Eckstein as Political Theorist.”
[33] Eckstein, “On the Etiology of Internal Wars.” For recent overviews of the Cold War and the social sciences, see Engerman, “Social Science in the Cold War”;Gilman, “Cold War as Intellectual Force Field.”
[34] Orlansky, State of Research on Internal War, 3; compare Eckstein, Internal War,32: “The crucial issues…are pre-theoretical issues.”
[35] U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Nature of Revolution,155 – 56; Brinton, Anatomy of Revolution; Mc Alister, Viet Nam.
[36] 有关Rawls的演讲中更多政治和思想史的背景，详见Forrester, “Citizenship,War, and the Origins of International Ethics in American Political Philosophy,1960—1975”。
[37] Rawls, “Moral Problems.”
[38] Compare, for example, Speier, Revolutionary War.
[39] John Rawls, “Topic III: Just War: Jus ad bellum” (1969), Harvard University Archives, Acs. 14990, box 12, file 4; Mill, “A Few Words on Non-intervention”(1859), in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, 21:111 – 23.
[40] Foucault, “La société punitive,” Lecture 1 (Jan. 3, 1973), 16 – 17; Foucault, La société punitive, 14 – 15; Foucault, Punitive Society, trans. Burchell, 13.
[41] hoffman, “Foucault’s Politics and Bellicosity as a Matrix for Power Relations.”
[42] Foisneau, “Farewell to Leviathan.”
[43] Foucault, “La société punitive,” Lecture 2 (Jan. 10, 1973), 22 – 23, 28–29;Foucault, La société punitive, 26 – 31 (“la guerre civile se déroule sur le théâtre du pouvoir”), 34 (“la politique est la continuation de la guerre civile”);Foucault, Punitive Society, trans. Burchell, 24 – 32.
[44] Wright, Study of War; Richardson, Statistics of Deadly Quarrels; Singer and Small, Wages of War, 1816—1965.
[45] Small and Singer, Resort to Arms, 203 – 4.
[46] Ibid., 210 – 20; Henderson and Singer, “Civil War in the Post-colonial World,1946—92,” 284 – 85.
[47] Sambanis, “What Is Civil War? ”, 816.
[48] 有关其他的讨论，参见Duvall, “Appraisal of the Methodological and Statistical Procedures of the Correlates of War Project”; Cramer, Civil War Is Not a Stupid Thing, 57 – 86; Vasquez, War Puzzle Revisited, 27 – 29。
[49] metropole和periphery的区别后来被战争研究所抛弃了，Sarkees and Wayman, Resort to War, 43, 47。
[50] 这个困境甚至阻碍了耶鲁政治学家Stathis Kalyvas提出更为实用的内战定义：“Armed combat within the boundaries of a recognized sovereign entity between parties subject to a common authority at the outset of the hostilities.”Kalyvas, Logic of Violence in Civil War, 17 (my emphasis).
[51] Remak, Very Civil War, 157.
[52] hopkinson, Green Against Green, 272 – 73.
[53] Sutton, Index of Deaths from the Conflict in Ireland, 1969—1993; Conflict Archive on the Internet, “Violence: Deaths During the Conflict.”
[54] Sambanis, “It’s Official”; see also Toft, “Is It a Civil War, or Isn’t It?”
[55] Annan, quoted in Cordesmann, Iraq’s Insurgency and the Road to Civil Conflict,2:393.
[56] Lando, “By the Numbers, It’s Civil War.”
[57] Wong, “Matter of Definition.”
[58] Erdo an, quoted in Cordesmann, Iraq’s Insurgency and the Road to Civil Conflict,2:393.
[59] Keeter, “Civil War.”
[60] Stansfield, “Accepting Realities in Iraq.”
[61] Fearon, “Testimony to U.S. House of Representatives …on ‘Iraq: Democracy or Civil War?’ ”
[62] Fearon, “Iraq’s Civil War.”
[63] Zavis, “Maliki Challenges ‘Civil War’ Label.”
[64] Taheri, “There Is No Civil War in Iraq.”
[65] Keegan and Bull, “What Is a Civil War?”
[66] Patten, “Is Iraq in a Civil War?”: 32, 27.
[67] U.S. Army Field Manual 100 – 20: Military Operations in Low Intensity Conflict,quoted in Patten, “Is Iraq in a Civil War?”: 28
[68] Patten, “Is Iraq in a Civil War?”: 29 (my emphasis).
[69] “Piú che ad una guerra fra nazioni, noi assistiamo ad una mondiale guerra civile”: Salvemini, “Non abbiamo niente da dire” (Sept. 4, 1914), in Come siamo andati in Libia e altri scritti dal 1900 al 1915, 366; “… dieser Großkriegist ein europäischer Burgerkrieg, ein Krieg gegen der inneren, unsichtbaren Feind des europäischen Geistes”: Marc, “Das geheime Europa” (Nov. 1914),in Marc, Schriften, 165; Losurdo, War and Revolution, trans. Elliott, 82;Traverso, A ferro e fuoco, 29.
[70] Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace, 5.
[71] Rusconi, Se cessiamo di essere una nazione, 101 – 21; Traverso, A ferroe fuoco;Traverso, “New Anti-Communism”; Cattani, “Europe as a Nation,” 8 – 9.
[72] Friedrich, “International Civil War,” in Foreign Policy in the Making, 223 – 53;Losurdo, “Une catégorie centrale du révisionnisme.”
[73] Roy, War and Revolution, 46 – 54, 83 – 91, 96, 108 – 9; Manjapra, M. N. Roy,128 – 29.
[74] Nolte, Der europäische Burgerkrieg, 1917—1945; Nipperdey, Doering Manteuffel, and Thamer, Weltburgerkrieg der Ideologien; Bonnet, “Réflexions et jeux d’échelles autour de la notion de ‘guerre civile européenne.’ ”另一种方法，参见Payne, Civil War in Europe, 1904—1949。
[75] Acheson, Present at the Creation, 4 – 5.
[76] John F. Kennedy, “State of the Union Address” (Jan. 11, 1962), in U.S. President(1961—1963: Kennedy), Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy, 2:9; Miller, Modernism and the Crisis of Sovereignty, 15 – 16.
[77] Schmitt, Theory of the Partisan, trans. Ulmen, 95.
[78] Schmitt, Donoso Cortés in gesamteuropäischer Interpretation, 7 (“dereuropäische Bürgerkrieg von 1848…und der globale Weltbürgerkrieg der Gegenwart”), 18 – 19, 21, 85 – 86, 113 – 14; Schmitt, La guerre civile mondiale;Kesting, Geschichtsphilosophie und Weltburgerkrieg; Schnur, Revolution und Weltburgerkrieg; Portinaro, “L’epoca della guerra civile mondiale?”; Müller,Dangerous Mind, 104 – 15; Jouin, Le retour de la guerre juste, 269 – 90.
[79] Students for a Democratic Society, Port Huron Statement, 27.
[80] Arendt, On Revolution, 17; Bates, “On Revolutions in the Nuclear Age.”
[81] Galli, Political Spaces and Global War (2001—2), trans. Fay, 171 – 72; Härting,Global Civil War and Postcolonial Studies; Odysseos, “Violence After the State?”; Odysseos, “Liberalism’s War, Liberalism’s Order.”
[82] hardt and Negri, Multitude, 341.
[83] Agamben, State of Exception, trans. Attell, 2 – 3; see also Agamben, Stasis, trans. Heron, 24 (“The form that civil war has acquired today in world history is‘terrorism’… Terrorism is the ‘global civil war’ which time and again invests this or that zone of planetary space.”).
[84] On the congruences, empirical and definitional, between “civil war” and“terrorism,” see Findley and Young, “Terrorism and Civil War.”
[85] Jung, “Introduction: Towards Global Civil War?”
<h4>结语 关于内战的话</h4>
[1] Moses, “Civil War or Genocide?”; Rabinbach, “The Challenge of the Unprecedented.”
[2] Lepore, Name of War, xv.
[3] Kalyvas, “Civil Wars,” 416, where he notes it is “a phenomenon prone to serious semantic confusion, even contestation.” See also Waldmann, “Guerra civil”;Angstrom, “Towards a Typology of Internal Armed Conflict”; Sambanis, “What Is Civil War?”; Mundy, “Deconstructing Civil Wars”; González Calleja,Arbusti, and Pinto, “Guerre civili,” 34 – 42; González Calleja, Las guerras civiles, 34 – 78; Jackson, “Critical Perspectives,” 81 – 83.
[4] De Quincey, “[Fragments Relating to ‘Casuistry’]” (ca. 1839—43), in Works of Thomas De Quincey, 11:602.
[5] Pavone, Civil War, 269 – 70.
[6] Mamdani, “Politics of Naming”; Mamdani, Saviors and Survivors, 3 – 6.
[7] Freedman, “What Makes a Civil War?”
[8] Talmon, “Recognition of the Libyan National Transitional Council.”
<h4>后记</h4>
[1] http://www.iraqbodycount.org/database/; United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq, “Human Rights Report, 1 September–31 October 2006,” 4.
[2] Ted Widmer, Ark of the Liberties: America and the World (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008).